TNF and infection: In the early stages of the infection, a group of cytokines and pro-inflammatory chemokines are expressed including interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-2, IL-6, interleukin-8 (IL-8), both IFN-α/β, tumor necrosis factor (TNFα), CCL, CCL3, CCL5, CCL2, and IP-10.