TNF and infection: However, the establishment of the chronic phase of infection has been associated with the development of type 1 responses at the same time as type 2 responses [24–26], which is considered crucial for the immune control of numerous viral, bacterial, or protozoal infections, such as Plasmodium spp., for which protection from infection is mediated by cytokines, IFN-γ and TNF [27, 28].