TNF and necrotizing enterocolitis: For instance, different Lactobacillus reuteri strains were shown to decrease secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α and IL-6, in newborn rats suffering from necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), which was accompanied by probiotic TLR-4 signaling inhibition via the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB) pathway [52].