PPIG and infection: Cytokines such as interleukins IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-23, interferon gamma (IFNγ), transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), but also factors involved in infection such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), have been reported to directly or indirectly modulate CYP expression, as demonstrated in hepatic cell lines, animal models and humans (e.g., patients with cancer undergoing immunotherapy) [130,131,142,169,170,171,172,173,174].