PTEN and cancer: Lastly, the Warburg effect in cancer cells is further promoted by mutations in key oncogenes, such as MYC, Kristen rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (RAS), and its downstream targets phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/Akt/ mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/AKT/mTOR) signaling pathway, or oncosuppressor genes, such as TP53 inhibiting glycolysis and Phosphatase and TENsin homolog (PTEN) inhibiting PI3K/AKT/mTOR.