Anti-inflammatory responses induced by probiotics have been shown to be mediated via the TLR9 signaling pathway, preferentially eliciting Th3/T-reg cells, in a study conducted by Rachmilewtis et al. [113], where intragastric and subcutaneous administration of E. coli DH5-α probiotic DNA in mice showed amelioration of dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in mice with TLR2 and TLR4 deficiency but with no effect in mice with TLR9 deficiency. Here, TLR9 is linked to colitis.