TLR4 and atherosclerosis: These mechanisms include the regulation of the TLR4 (Toll-like receptor 4) signaling pathway, which provides an inflammatory response to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria and is widely represented in the cytoplasmic membrane of various cell types, including macrophages, and is actively involved in the pathogenesis of both COPD and atherosclerosis.