VCAM1 and endothelial dysfunction: Endothelial dysfunction is a pathognomonic factor related to SCD, and is caused by the upregulation of P- and E-selectin, ICAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and major leukocyte chemoattractants (i.e., keratinocyte-derived chemokine in mice or interleukin-8 in humans) on endothelial cells [24].