TNF and viral infectious disease: Interestingly, significantly increased expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and stromal cell-derived factor (SDF)-1α was found only in HAdV-infected patients among the four groups, and significantly increased levels of IL-17, Skp, Cullin, F-box containing complex (SCF)-β and tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) were found specifically in the HAdV-infected group among the three viral infection groups (Figures 1 and S1).