ACE and heart failure: The use of pharmacotherapy (eg,beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, or angiotensin receptorblockers) among patients with varying risk categories of CKD has been another strategy.41 The implementation of various heart failure intervention programs has beenshown to reduce hospitalizations and improve outcomes.42,43 However, our findings suggestthe need for the development of interventions that target underlying comorbidities,particularly heart failure, in earlier CKD risk patients before the onset ofdialysis treatment.