A similar decrease in atherosclerosis with a subsequent decrease in plaque T cells and aortic IFN-γ expression as well as an increase in plaque SMCs was observed in our DC-specific CD40 knockout mice (Supplementary Fig. 3a-d), suggesting that the CD40L-CD40 T cell—DC axis plays a critical role in polarizing T cell-mediated inflammation in atherosclerosis. Here, CD40 is linked to atherosclerosis.