TNF and infection: These pollutant matter may weaken the body’s immune system and increase the risk of TB infections through (i) reduction of tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interferon-gamma production (IFN-g) in peripheral blood monocytes [101, 102]; (ii) inhibition of serum neutralizing antibodies formation [103]; (iii) alterations in alveolar macrophage phagocytosis and blood mononuclear cells [25]; and (d) increased susceptibility to infection via upregulation of receptors involved in pathogen invasion [104].