With the deep understanding of tumor immunology and the success of Sipuleucel-T, several types of cancer vaccines and other diverse vaccines have now been evaluated in phase II and phase III clinical trials [39, 40], such as granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) gene-modified autologous tumor vaccine (CG8123), peptide-based glycoprotein 100 (Gp100), TGF-β2 antisense/GM-CSF gene-modified autologous tumor cell vaccine (TAG) and New York esophageal carcinoma antigen 1 Plasmid DNA (pPJV7611) [41–43]. Here, CSF2 is linked to cancer.