They may furthermore reflect increased electrophysiological atrial instability and enhanced atrial inflammation, as TMAO injections into 4 major atrial ganglionated plexi in experimental studies enhanced electrophysiological atrial instability and, when using a model of rapid atrial pacing, induced increased acute electrical remodeling including upregulation of inflammatory cytokines that belong to the p65 NF-κB signaling pathway [5]. This evidence concerns the gene NFKB1 and inflammation.