TKT and lung cancer: When A549 lung cancer cells were treated with different concentrations (0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 μg/mL) of tk-JCPyV VLPs, 1 μg/mL tk-JCPyV VLPs in the presence of the GCV reduced cell viability by approximately 30%, and 10 μg/mL tk-JCPyV VLPs reduced cell viability by approximately 50% (Fig. 4A).