TNF and type 2 diabetes mellitus: Previous observational studies consistently reported that high dietary fiber intake is inversely associated with the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and suggested that consumption of high dietary fiber may modulate inflammatory cytokines (e.g. interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-12, and IL-18, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interferon gamma (IFNγ), and granulocyte–macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF)) and substantially improve glucose hemostasis25–27.