ACTA1 and Myocardial fibrosis: Previous studies have shown that activation of the TGF-β/Smad pathway by inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, can enhance the expression of the myocardial fibrosis biomarker, α-SMA, and myocardial hypertrophy biomarker, β-MHC, induce the production of collagen and extracellular matrix, and subsequently lead to conditions, such as myocardial hypertrophy, myocardial interstitial fibrosis, and ventricular remodeling (11, 27, 28).