TNF and post-traumatic stress disorder: Indeed, both animal and human studies provide evidence for an ELS-associated pro-inflammatory state later in life [172,173,174,175,176], while numerous studies published during the last decade repeatedly confirm, among others, elevated levels of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines [e.g., tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α; interferon (IFN)-γ], white blood cells, and CRP in individuals with PTSD across various trauma types [177,178,179].