Additional animal studies utilizing a SPS model of PTSD in rats, also reported (i) decreased SOD activity; (ii) increased expression of NOX-2 subunits; (iii) increased MDA and phosphorylated AMPK; (iv) decreased GSH levels in amygdala and hippocampi; (v) elevated IL-6 and IL-1beta levels; (vi) higher expression of iNOS and p-p38 in hippocampi; (vii) higher cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) mRNA and protein expression, TNF-α, IL-6, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and NO levels; and (viii) cell apoptosis in the hippocampi of stress exposed animals [118,119,120,121]. Here, TNF is linked to post-traumatic stress disorder.