Chronic hepatitis causes immune cells to produce TNF; the released TNF then acts on TNF receptors in hepatocytes, activating IKK, which in turn activates NF-κB signaling and drives the expression of proliferation-promoting genes, such as CCND1; anti-apoptotic genes, such as BCL2L1; and the gene encoding TNF [159]. Here, TNF is linked to chronic hepatitis.