TNF and Hyperglycemia: Hyperglycemia also activates nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in astrocytes, and enhances leukocyte adhesion through higher expression of cell adhesion molecules in cerebral blood vessels (ICAM1, intracellular adhesion molecule 1; VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 and E-selectin) and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF, IL-6, and IL-1β) (42, 70).