TNF and severe acute respiratory syndrome: EBN also attenuated the surge in pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines such as TNF-α, CCL-2, NF-κβ, NO, IL-6, and increased IFN-γ (Aswir and Wan Nazaimoon, 2011; Vimala et al., 2012; Haghani et al., 2016), which are dysregulated in severe forms of IAV (Xagorari and Chlichlia, 2008; Tisoncik et al., 2012), and SARS-CoV infections (Gao et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2020).