TGFB1 and lung carcinoma: As a rate-limiting enzyme of the hexosamine biosynthesis pathway (HBP), it is involved in human breast and colon tumorigenesis (3, 39). A study confirmed that in lung cancer, normal fibroblasts transformed to cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF)-like cells under TGF-β treatment and upregulated HBP genes which include GFPT2 (40).