TNF and viral infectious disease: Review article outlining differences in innate immune responses between males and females, particularly that viral infections are more severe and require hospitalization more in males than females, corresponding with higher levels of TNF-α in males than females. Females were also found to mount more effective adaptive immune responses to viral pathogens. These favorable differences in innate immune responses are a consequence of higher estrogen levels, which augment immune responses after infection and have been shown to increase resistance to infections.