TNF and neoplasm: In the initial stages of various tumors, TAMs are preferentially polarized toward the M1 phenotype, producing abundant proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-12 and TNF, and exerting anti-tumor functions (38); however, on cancer progression and changes in the TME, TAMs, driven by tumor cell- and T cell-derived cytokines, including IL-4, IL-13, and IL-10, gradually acquire a polarized M2 phenotype, expressing mannose and the scavenger receptors, CD163 and CD204, and exhibit distinct functional properties that promote angiogenesis, as well as tissue remodeling and repair (37).