TNF and infection: Previously, we have described that pandemic, but not seasonal influenza A strains, downregulate the expression of the suppressors of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS-1) and increase the production of IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, IL-10, CCL3, CCL4, and CCL5 in experimental infection assays of human lung A549 epithelial cells and human macrophages (57).