TLR4 and Insulin resistance: Many studies have shown that intestinal immune homeostasis due to gut microbiota disturbances and intestinal mucosal dysfunction due to inflammatory activation are closely related to the development of insulin resistance [73, 74]; gut microbiota imbalances trigger inflammatory responses and affect insulin-related signaling pathways, such as the mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathway and TLR4/NF-κB signaling, thereby causing insulin resistance and elevated blood glucose [27, 75].