Although limited studies have addressed the role of OSM in LSCC, OSM, as a pleiotropic cytokine, has been shown to function in a variety of cancer cells in vitro, specifically to (1) promote a stem cell-like phenotype and EMT (Junk et al., 2017; West, Murray & Watson, 2014); (2) induce the expression of hypoxia inducible factor-1α, VEGF, and other proangiogenic factors (Fossey et al., 2011; Vollmer et al., 2009); and (3) promote tumour cell invasion and metastasis (Holzer et al., 2004). Here, VEGFA is linked to cancer.