TNF and atherosclerosis: At the gene expression level, studies have determined that multiple proteins, including inflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, IL-10, interferon (IFN)-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β] and vascular endothelial related molecules [high-mobility group box protein (HMGB)1, vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1, intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)], are closely related to atherosclerosis in SLE patients (10, 11).