Increasing evidence points to an important role of non-parenchymal and immune cells in the liver response to infection by HCV, HBV, and Plasmodium. Analysis of liver biopsies of HCV-infected patients revealed that Kupffer cells secrete IFN-β, playing a role in spontaneous HCV clearance and suggesting a role for plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) in the intrahepatic IFN response [136]. Here, IFNA1 is linked to infection.