TNF and cancer: Furthermore, inflammation can induce epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in cancer cells both by direct action of soluble mediators of cancer-associated inflammation (TGF-β, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, CCL2, among others) and by the action of various types of immune cells including M2-activated tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) [105].