Furthermore, our MFP regression model for hepcidin showed independent associations of hepcidin with ferritin, CRP, IL-17, urinary pH, and the intake of MNS, aligning with previous reports in the literature where hepcidin was associated with ferritin in pregnant Gambian women (73); however, evidence of the association of hepcidin with infection, inflammation, and malnutrition during pregnancy or with SFH has not been described. Here, HAMP is linked to nutritional deficiency disease.