Finally, considering the fact that TNFα itself can promote an M1-like fate in macrophages to trigger the secretion of TNFα and IL-1β from macrophages [8], the interaction among these sources of proinflammatory cytokines could form a vicious circle to elevate local levels of TNFα and IL-1β in SGs from CHF rats. Here, IL1B is linked to congestive heart failure.