Only two participants were identified with hepatic fibrosis by liver ultrasound, and neither were infected with S. japonicum. We further evaluated the immunologic responses of these children with particular attention to T-helper cell cytokine profiles; a Th2 response (IL-4, IL-5, IL-13) has more consistently been demonstrated in the context of human resistance to infection, compared to a pro-inflammatory or Th1 response (IFN-γ, IL-1, IL-12, TNF-α). This evidence concerns the gene TNF and infection.