Not only in VL but also in CL caused by L. braziliensis, the increased frequency of intermediate CD14++CD16+ monocytes producing TNF and IL-1ß is associated with tissue damage and immunopathology in humans [89, 90]; interestingly, as in amebiasis, infection rates and disease severity caused by the above-mentioned Leishmania species are more prominent in men [91]. The gene discussed is TNF; the disease is infection.