CTLA4 and neoplasm: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) that target checkpoint components, such as programmed death receptor (PD-1) and its ligand programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1), or cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4), or other inhibitory molecules can partly release this immune system brake and have shown impressive long-term outcomes in many cancer patients.37–40 Mechanistically, ICIs neutralise negative feedback from immunological checkpoints or increase immune-stimulatory signalling, thus reinvigorating the endogenous tumour-specific T cell response.