CD86 and chronic kidney disease: Metformin pre-conditioning of CKD animals significantly reduced CKD-induced mRNA expression of CD32 (p < 0.05), CD86 (p < 0.05), iNOS (p < 0.001), and IL-1β (p < 0.01) (Fig. 3B–E), as well as that of the M1 marker CD16 (p < 0.01) (Fig. 3G) relative to that of vehicle treated CKD mice.