Together, the observation of increased secretion of IL-10, GM-CSF, and TNFα, decreased secretion of IL-8, increased gene expression of IL-8, CCL2, CD86, IL-1β, CCR5, Ly96, IRF7, C3, and TNFα, and increased expression of cell surface markers CD11b, CD11c, CD86, and MHCII all have implications for the anti-proliferative properties of carnosine, which should be further explored in anti-cancer therapy. Here, CSF2 is linked to cancer.