TNF and COVID-19: Serum cytokine levels that are elevated in patients with COVID-19-associated cytokine storm include IL-1β, IL-6, interferon γ-induced protein-10 (IP-10), TNF-α, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP) -1α and -1β, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) [3,7,52,90,91,92,93].