TNFα and IL-1β, known to be expressed by cancer cells and inflammatory cells and to constitute a part of the TME, can increase the tumor-stimulating properties of MSCs (TNFα [40,41,42,43,44,45,46] and IL-1β [44,45,46,47,48]); however, the ability of these two cytokines to induce MSC-to-CAF conversion and the impact of the resulting CAFs on tumor progression have not been investigated in depth. Here, TNF is linked to cancer.