In this comparative analysis of the performance characteristics of plasma and urine biomarkers of nephropathy, we have found that markers of GFR (serum creatinine, eGFRcreat, cystatin C, eGFRcys) are not as useful as newer markers of AKI (plasma and urine NGAL) in the detection of renal involvement during VOC. This evidence concerns the gene CST3 and acute kidney injury.