TGFB1 and cancer: TGF-β signalling in fibroblasts is documented as a pleiotropic cytokine associated with poor prognosis in multiple tumour categories [50, 51] and is considered critical in advanced cancers in terms of the promotion of immunosuppression, angiogenesis, metastasis, tumour cell epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), fibroblast activation and desmoplasia [52–54].