TNF and Alzheimer disease: In macrophages treated with AD-MSC-γ-sEVs, the proteins levels of TNF-α and MCP-1 decreased significantly compared to those treated with AD-MSC-sEVs (TNF-α; p = 0.0456, MCP-1; p = 0.0156; Supplementary Fig. 2), indicating that AD-MSC-γ-sEVs can induce the production of anti-inflammatory macrophages more effectively than AD-MSC-sEVs (Fig. 1).