IL1B and Granuloma: Importantly, consistent with no induction of proinflammatory cytokine IL-1/18 production in Mn2+-treated cells, compared to CFA-injected mice showing prominent swellings and granulomas with one injection (Supplementary Fig. 5j), MnJ-injected mice displayed no visible side effects on the injection site, body weight, survival, or different organs even after repeated administrations (three injections in 3 consecutive weeks) (Supplementary Fig. 5k, l), suggesting that MnJ is a safe adjuvant with good biocompatibility.