AKT1 and endothelial dysfunction: Indeed, some saponin components of the THF described here, such as ginsenoside Rb1 and ginsenoside Rg1, have been reported to target PI3K-AKT pathway to regulate innate immune responses in macrophages [42], to protect IL-1β-induced mitochondria-activated apoptosis [43], to mitigate oxidative stress and apoptosis [44], and to prevent homocysteine-induced endothelial dysfunction [45].