TGFB1 and neoplasm: Cytokines such as TGF-β, largely produced by immune and stromal cell types during wound healing in the TME, play a critical role in the regulation of tissue homoeostasis and cancer progression.114 A detailed summary of the TGF-β signalling pathway and its role in metastasis is available elsewhere.115,116 Briefly, this pleiotropic growth factor inhibits the proliferation of normal epithelial cells and cancer cells in early-stage disease, but directly stimulates the proliferation of malignant and stromal cells later in tumour progression.