TNF and infection: Induction of mICAM-1 expression in AEC has been observed with infection by H. influenzae, C. pneumoniae, Pneumocystis carinii [26,29–31] or P. aeruginosa [36] as seen in our study, either directly in response to bacterial products, or indirectly in response to inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α [82,92].