Interestingly, this is not unique to the infection with C. concisus, since in the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection with compromised intestinal epithelial barrier function and leak-flux diarrhea, macrophages were also activated and elicited an inflammatory response through an increased release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, IFN-α, and IFN-γ [44]. Here, TNF is linked to infection.