TNF and acute respiratory distress syndrome: Favorable effects of pentoxifylline were also demonstrated in models of direct ALI where pentoxifylline prevented an increase in TNFα, protein concentration, and counts of alveolar macrophages in BALF in meconium-injured piglets [69], and reduced histological signs of lung injury and inflammation, diminished oxidative stress, and upregulated markers of wound repair in nitrogen mustard-induced rat model of ALI [70].