TNF and bacterial infectious disease: For example, M1 (and M1-like) polarization can be induced, through respective receptors, by bacterial infection and bacterial products (e.g., lipopolysaccharides); a number of endogenous pro-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors such as IFN-γ (interferon gamma), TNFα (tumor necrosis factor alpha), IL-1β (interleukin-1 beta), GM-CSF (granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor); and also endogenous danger and stress signals such as HMGB1 (high-mobility group box 1) and HSPs (heat shock proteins) (Atri et al., 2018; Martinez and Gordon, 2014).