MAPK3 and breast carcinoma: Polymorphisms in the angiogenesis-associated genes have also been identified in breast cancer in African populations and include the LEP, LEPR, VEGF, and MMP2. Leptin and LEPR Q223R (rs1137101) were identified as risk factors for breast cancer in Egyptian and Nigerian women (139–141) while leptin alone was notably reported as a key driver of breast cancer progression through the induction of JAK/STAT3, ERK1/2, and estrogen pathways in obese Egyptian women (142).